Analysing leadership and determinants of Leadership Effectiveness

Analysing leadership and determinants of Leadership Effectiveness Leadership is the behavior of an individual when he/she is giving directions and activities to a group moving towards a common purpose. A leader is seen as someone who sets the paths in an effort to influence people to adhere to those paths. Leadership is an action and not just a position. It can be shown via different people in various situations. A person may not born to be a leader but can be cultured through the upbringing and environment. But there are people who have innate capabilities to become leaders even though they are not exposed. These innate characteristics need to be polished in order for the person to let his or her leadership skills and capabilities shine through. Such leaders also need to be further equipped with certain competencies so that they can pick up qualities that they should demonstrate to become even greater leaders. A leaders personal characteristics are also vital for the developments and motivations of the organizations. True leaders such as the teachers who illustrated that leadership is an action (teaching and leading the students) and not a position. Personal characteristics can also determine what type of leadership approach a person will demonstrate and how effective his or her leadership capabilities are in different situations. Touching the lives and affecting the outcome of many different expectations, a teacher is the epitome of a leader. A leader has his or her own style of motivating the people in the organizations. A leader must find the best skills in order to provide directions, motivations and purposes. Effective leaders are flexible. Organizational Leadership Model The effective leadership influence is not the same for everyone. It depends on their ranks in the organization and abilities which are required in leaders. The three basic leadership roles identified: initiation, speech, and management. 1. Initiation Initiation refers to planned decision making on policy formulation or structural change. These vital decisions are the determinants of the organizations culture and mission. 2. Speech Strategic decisions and methods designed for implementation within the establishment. It includes adjusting or adding on to the present structure towards new policy demands. 3. Management Management is putting into practice the policies and measures that are available to maintain the operations of the organization efficiently. These three kinds of Leadership are naturally executed at diverse ranks in the company with different abilities and skills. The top level management would initiate new policies that involve a change in the businesss structure or understanding the companys mission. An understanding of the entire organization, culture, mission, vision and how it correlates with the external parties is mandatory for these top level individuals. They represent the organization and what the business stands for. Understanding the policy decisions and practicing them to the existing organization via utterance or speech is usually made by the intermediate-level managers. They must uphold a two-way point of reference by taking orders from the above management and adapting them for the lower groups of people in the organization. Type of Leadership Process Typical Organizational Level Cognitive (Knowledge) Affective (Emotion) Initiation: Change, creation and elimination of structure Top echelons System perspective Charisma Speech: supplementing and piecing out of structure Intermediate levels: pivotal roles Subsystem perspective: two-way orientation Integration of primary and secondary relations: human relation skills Management: use of existing structure Lower levels Technical knowledge and understanding of system of rules Concern with equity in use of rewards and sanctions EXHIBIT 16.1 The three Leadership Models. The Position in the Organization. The Skill Requirements A companys policies and procedures will be administered by the Lower-level supervisors. These personnel must possess both the technical knowledge and a clear perception of the organizations rules in order to be successful. They have to continually deal with issues such as equity, rewards and punishments in leading others. Therefore, leadership plays a crucial role in an organization because it has direct impact on the effectiveness of the organizations. Leadership is when a person manipulates others to perform a task at their own will which they would not normally do. Leadership is a vital process to an organization and it can be deliberated on three different stages; i.e. the individual, group and organization. Analysis at the individual stage: the leadership studies have paid attention on the successful leader personalities. Behaviors of both formal and informal leaders are focused at the group level. The effectiveness of an organization is decided by the relations between the leader, follower and circumstances. The studies have caused an emergence of different theories of leadership, namely situational and contingency. In Search for Leadership The requirements in selecting and training efficient leaders were emphasized during the World War I and the quarter century between World War l and World War II; numerous studies were made to examine the personal characteristics of good leaders. These studies are usually referred as characteristic studies since the primary goal was to classify the traits and personal characteristics of successful leaders. The diverse methods used to study these leadership traits could possibly be the reason in the irregularities of the results. The manner of studies was not consistent in identifying the leaders. A majority of the studies was in comparing efficient with inefficient leaders or leaders with non-leaders. Some were identified by external observers, others selected by the group by way of recommendation or voting, nominated by observers such as teachers while some were chosen because they are already in leadership positions. The studies conducted were in conflict as to the way they deliberated on the traits. Some traits were measured by mental tests; others relied on viewers to spot the traits they have seen while some depended on the persons to report their own personality traits. The trait studies were quite unsatisfactory as a whole especially since they had hoped to develop an accurate measure of leadership effectiveness. The spotlight on the leadership research moved because of the flimsy results, to contingency studies which investigated more than just traits of a leader. Numerous traits formed an important divergence in leadership effectiveness and they interrelated with other conditional variables to stimulate the effectiveness of the leader. Physical Behaviors Physical attributes including height, weight, health and appearance are also examined in the studies. It was concluded that there is a relationship between the above features and leadership. Apparently leaders have the tendency to be taller, heavier, better fitness, greater physique, higher energy output and more attractive in appearance. However, these types of results were not always reliable and consistent. The results neither are too weak in general and not consistent to be effective in selecting leaders nor are they helpful for training functions since not much can be made to alter most of these physical traits. Intellect It was generally agreed that leaders are more intellectual than non-leaders and the relationship was shown in the various studies. The relationship could probably begin from the reality that leadership functions depend mostly on success in problem solving. Leadership roles such as initiation, speech and management necessitate great mental ability. In general, it is safe to assume that leaders seem to be more intelligent than non-leaders but the relationships are small. Many other variables other than intellect inspire leadership effectiveness. It was also suggested that leaders should not be too intelligent than the group because associates who are notably brilliant than others are rarely chosen as leaders since the other members tend to snub them. Individuals with high IQs are inclined to have different sets of vocabulary, networks and aspirations that would create communication and inter-relations problems. Leaders do extremely well generally at school/college/university and score better grades. It is important for effective leadership to know how to do things. Thus general and practical knowledge are essential for leaders to make better decisions. Characteristic Traits Only a partial of the characteristic traits seem to be related to leadership and most are not especially convincing. It was suggested that the average leader is more social, has greater initiative, is more persistent, smart in getting things done, highly self-confident, cooperative, and adaptable to situations and possesses excellent communication skills. Leaders were found to be more emotionally mature than non-leaders in the personality integration or emotional adjustment. It can be concluded that personal characteristics are related to leadership. Effective leadership does not depend on a mixture of personality traits only because situational variables are also important since they always decide whether a character was associated with effective leadership either positively or negatively. Therefore, it can be deduced that effective leadership depends on the leaders characteristics, his subordinates and the nature of the task at hand. Many leadership styles were based on studies of leaders behaviors. The finest researches on the styles of leadership are made together at the same time; i.e. The State University in Ohio and the Michigan University. Researchers acknowledged two leader behaviors that were similar although the investigations were conducted separately. As a result, a two dimensional aspects of leadership have been to used to form the Managerial Grid. Authoritarian, Democratic, and Laissez-faire Leadership Due to the diverse political systems in the US and Germany before World War II, studies of leadership have been inspired which evaluated the three leadership styles: the authoritarian, the democratic and the laissez faire. In the democratic leadership style, decisions were made by vote of majority; equal participation encouraged; criticism and punishment minimal. In the autocratic leader, the leader made all the decisions and others must follow the set procedures strictly. In the laissez-faire leader, there was minimal actual leadership and others were permitted to work and play as usual without proper directives. Initiating Structure and Consideration The two leadership factors were initiating structure and consideration which include leadership behaviors in organizing and defining the tasks to be performed and goal achievements. A leader who assigns people to do specific jobs, expected workers to follow set routines and meet deadlines. The consideration factor is friendliness, showing trust, exhibiting warmth and concern for followers. Production-Centered and Employee-Centered Leader Behaviors Production centered behaviors were akin to initiating structure in which leaders would establish targets, gave directives, checked on operations and planned the group Employees work. Centered behaviors were similar to the considerations dimension in which the leader would develop a caring personal relationship with the subordinates and encouraged a two-way communication with them. The associations between the production-centered and employee-centered behaviors are found to be independent scopes of leadership. A leader with strong production orientation does not mean that he is disinterested in the employees. Managerial Grid Robert Blake and Jane Mouton had created a framework which relates task accomplishment to concern for people called the Managerial Grid. They both assumed that concern for production and concern for people would produce the most effective leadership style. There are leaders primarily more concerned with accomplishing the production and task not concerned about people. This person wants the job done and schedule followed at all costs. There is also individual who is not concerned whether the group produces anything but concerned more about the personal needs and interests of the team members. Ideally, leaders should be concerned about meeting schedules in order to get the work done and simultaneously are concerned about the team members interest and feelings too. The Managerial Grid is popular among managers. It is extensively used by organisations as part of their training program to assess leadership style. However, the effectiveness of the Managerial Grid is not consistently supported. The factors which are considered in determining leadership styles interact in complicated ways which resulted in various leadership styles. SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP In assessing leadership effectiveness, there are many factors that must be combined. A situational leadership model developed by Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard considers three variables: (1) the guidance and the direction provided by the leaders (task behavior) (2) the emotional support given by the leader (relationship behavior) (3) the maturity level exhibited in performing the task As a result, four potential leadership styles have been created using a combination of the above factors: S1: Telling Give instructions and supervise performance closely. Suited for followers who are unwilling but of low maturity. S2: Selling Decide and provide opportunity for explanation. Appropriate for followers who are not able but willing. S3: Participating Sharing ideas in making decisions. Suited for followers who are able but not willing. S4: Delegating Responsibility handed over for decisions and performance. Appropriate for groups who are able and willing. Contingency Theory of Leadership Fiedler studied the interaction of leadership style and situation. He identified and developed ways to measure leadership orientation of the leader and situational factors which influence leadership. Leader Orientation Two types of leaders were identified, i.e. relationship-oriented or task-oriented. Leaders who are relationship-oriented tend to look at others as coworkers and look upon interpersonal relations as a requirement towards accomplishing the task. However, for task-oriented leaders, they react strongly against people whom they could not get along with in performing a task. Situational favorableness (1) relationships between leader and member can be good or bad; (2) the task is relatively well planned or not; and (3) the leaders authority is relatively strong or weak. The task structure becomes the second most important situational variable based on evaluation of four aspects of the task structure. Clarity: whether requirements of the tasks are stated clearly, Multiplicity: which the problems encounter can be solved. Verifiability: which the correctness of the decisions can be ascertained. Specificity: which there are generally more solutions involved in performing the task. Group effectiveness Relationship-oriented leaders perform excellently well in situations where concern for the team members is apparently necessary in order to motivate them to perform well. People naturally prefer leaders who care about them and their welfare. However, task-oriented leaders are clearly more effective in impossible situations. Path-Goal Model Directive leadership: subordinates are told what to be expected. Specific guide, standards and work schedules are provided to ensure that task are performed as expected. Supportive leadership: subordinates are treated equally and show concern for their needs and well-being; develop pleasant interpersonal relationships among the group members. Achievement-oriented leadership: challenging goals are set and subordinates are expected to perform at their highest level, improvement in performance always. Participative leadership: subordinates are consulted on suggestions and ideas in making decisions. Situational Aspects The distinctive personalities of those who follow and the environmental factors which affect the leadership style are called situational aspects or features of the situation. Significant characteristics of the followers which have been identified as determinants of leadership style are: (1). Followers with internal locus of control believe that they are rewarded for their own effort. Meanwhile, followers with external locus of control believe that external forces have a control on their rewards. (2). Authoritarianism: an individuals willingness to accept the influence of others. (3). Abilities: The followers ability and experience influence a leader whether they are able to work with an achievement oriented leader or a supportive leader who are patient enough to provide encouragement and instruction. The path-goal model recognizes three environmental factors which effect leadership styles: the nature of the task to be performed, the existing organizations authority system the organizational norms and dynamics The above factors may influence the effectiveness of various styles of leadership in a many ways. NORMATIVE DECISION-MAKING MODEL OF LEADERSHIP Based on the contingency theory of leadership, this leadership model does not assume any leadership style as appropriate for all situations. Leaders must develop a range of leadership styles and take on the most appropriate style depending on the situation. Leaders are required to know in which circumstances they need to consult others and vice versa. Even though the leader may be the chairman of the group, he/she is just one of the group members and does not have or even try to influence the other group members to adopt or follow a particular solution. The principle in selecting a leadership approach. The two measures/principles used for assessing the efficiency of a leadership style are excellence and approval. The quality of the decisions made refers to the accurateness of the actions taken and the extent which some objectives are achieved. The quality of decisions depends on accurate and relevant information Conferring with other group members often provides additional information. Diagnostic decision rules. In order to save time and minimize costs, some managers choose the lead autocratically. If the aim was to further the subordinates personal development, the participative style is selected. In some strategies, the manager decides alone. At times, the manager decides on his own after earlier consultations with his subordinates. Comparing the leadership models. All situational leadership models emphasize on the effect of external factors on a particular leadership style. Different leadership styles suggest styles that are determined by various situational factors. The models focus on different methods, which are situational factors and criteria for selecting the best style: task-oriented versus relationship-oriented. The normative decision-making model ascertains three leadership styles, namely autocratic, consultative, and participative. In each model, situational factors which influence the effectiveness of leadership are somewhat different. A significant reason which contributes to this is that normative decision- making model likens leadership to decision making and considers only this aspect of the leadership function. The model also uses different criteria for evaluating leadership effectiveness. DETERMINANTS OF LEADERSHIP EFFECTIVENESS Although identifying what makes an effective leader seems like a simple task, however, individuals who are in leadership positions are often faced with a dilemma on deciding which leadership pattern to practice. Choosing a Leadership Style Choosing the most appropriate leadership style to adopt depends largely on the context of the organization. A successful leader must be capable of assessing the situational forces in the organization and respond accordingly to the needs. The forces include the organization culture, business goals as well as the organizations strategic plans. Effective leaders must understand themselves, the group, company and social environment. Strategies for Improving Leadership One of the main variables to improve leadership relates largely to the organizations reward system. Leaders should not overlook his capacity to reward his followers accordingly since followers will respond otherwise. For instance, the managers of high- performing groups generally are compensated according to their achievements. Considerate leaders manage to create satisfaction among their performing subordinates while at the same time; changes in the behavior of the leaders could be caused by the performance of the subordinates. Constraints on leader behavior. Leaders have limited opportunities to influence others. Leadership effectiveness is inhibited by a variety of factors. For example, the managerial decisions are planned ahead due to factors such as organizational structure, state and federal law, technological specifications and innovations as well as the absence of other alternatives. Many other organisational factors can impose limitations on the leaders capability to communicate with subordinates or reinforce their behavior towards achieving the organisational purpose. For example, organisational policies, nature of task, skills and abilities of available resources and other external factors may impede the capacities of organisational leaders. External factors. In terms of external factors, leaders are constrained by factors that they have no control on such as state and federal laws. Other external factors include the world economy and global issues. Irrespective of their leadership style, leaders with unskilled resources will face great challenges in leading. The availability of skilled followers is subjected to the external labor market. Organizational policies. The organization may limit a leaders effectiveness by hampering the amount of communication between leaders and followers. The existing company policies may also pose restrictions on the ability of leaders to reward or punish followers. Group factors. Leaders may find it hard to penetrate or influence group members who are highly unified. This will create difficulty for leaders to demonstrate his true capabilities in performing tasks for the organisation. Individual proficiencies and competencies. The leaders own talents and aptitudes may become their constraints because leaders can only possess limited expertise, energy, and power. Some situations may need greater amount of skills, experience and capabilities compared to what the leader may possibly have. Substitutes for leadership. Leadership is an extremely important function. It has an enormous influence on the value of organizations, especially in a business environment. However, in complex situations, we may not know exactly which leadership behaviour will be the most effective to adopt. In addition, certain situations warrant that leadership may be unnecessary subordinates. SUMMARY 1. Leadership is the increasing influence which occurs when an individual manipulates others to do task voluntarily which they would not do otherwise. The basic leadership roles include initiation of policy and structure, speech, and management. Leadership is required within organizations to provide direction to employees towards a common organisational objective. 2. The studies of leadership were mainly studies on traits that tried to identify the characteristics of effective leaders. The studies focused mainly on physical traits, intellect and characteristic. The results were usually weak and inconsistent although some personal characteristics were always related to leadership. Most studies concluded that apart from behaviour characteristics and traits of the leader, the nature of subordinates and the type of task to be performed were as equally important to determine success. 3. Another approach to studying leadership set on leader behaviors; i.e. how leaders actually behave. One of the studies compared the three leadership methods i.e. the authoritarian type, the democratic style and the laissez-faire mode. A democratic leadership produced the greatest satisfaction among subordinates while autocratic leadership style encouraged high level of productivity in the organisation. 4. A research conducted at the same time at two different universities identified two groups of similar behaviors of leadership. At The State University in Ohio, the researchers identified these two leader behaviors as initiating constitution and thought whereas at the Michigan University, the two parallel features were called the production-centered which focus more on the production and the employee-centered with the workers as the focal point. These two leader behaviors seem to relate leadership functions which are essential to the effectiveness of a group. A matrix named Managerial Grid had been formed based on these two factors. The Managerial Grid correlates the concern for production and the concern for people in identifying leadership effectives. 5. As a result of unsuccessful researches conducted to identify superior leadership behaviors, four situational theories of leadership were developed instead. Theories have suggested that the effective of leadership style depends largely upon situational factors, especially nature of the group and the task to be performed. 6. A situational leadership model that matches various amalgamations of chore and relationship manners with maturity of the subordinates. As the number of followers increases, the appropriate leadership style that should be employed would be telling, selling, participating and delegating. 7. Three situational variables are used to assess the most appropriate leadership style. The variables are the connection between the leader and the members (either good or bad), the task (structured or unstructured) and the strength of the leaders power. Based on findings, the most effective leadership style when these three variables formed an extremely favorable or unfavorable circumstance is task-oriented leadership. Nevertheless, a leader with high concerns for interpersonal associations is most effective when there were intermediate levels of favorableness. 8. The path goal model theory is derived from expectancy theory. It suggests that effective leaders must clarify the paths to attract followers. Based on this theory, the command, the sympathetic, the accomplishment-oriented and the contributive leadership styles emerged. The most appropriate leadership style is dependent on two types of situational factors: characteristics of followers as well as the internal/external environment. Three significant characteristics of follower are the locus of control (internal or external), authoritarianism and personal capabilities. The three environmental attributes are nature of the task to be performed, the existing organisational authority system and norms and dynamics of members. 9. The three leadership styles identified are autocratic, consultative and group decision making. Determining which style is most appropriate depends largely on several factors such as considerations whether adequate information is made available to the leader when making decision alone, whether the goals of the organisation are acceptable by the subordinates, or whether the followers accept decisions made without their involvement. 10. Members of the group also have a reciprocal influence on the leader. Group member can induce heir leaders behavior by reacting to the specific leaders behaviors selectively. The power and influence of a leader can also be limited due to certain external factors such as policies of the organisation, norms of the group members as well as the skills and abilities of followers. POSITIONING ON LEADERSHIP CRISIS Many leadership theories have been in existence as more people try to determine the most effective leadership style available. In addition, various leadership models and approaches have been used to produce identified types of leaders. Arthur G. Jago (1982) had projected a structure that organizes leadership theories that are based on each theorys focal point and approach. However, effective leadership also depends on specific situations, among other factors. The result of exposure to different experiences in life throughout the learning process also have the potential to produce mature leaders with high capabilities to lead organisations. Coupled with certain identified competencies which can be acquired, these leaders can demonstrate high skills and capabilities in their capacities as organisational leaders. There are various kinds of behavior that leaders can display to its followers. The two leadership behaviors that have been consistently identified are called the production-centered and the consideration-centered activities. A person can change his or her behaviour without being forced to based on the amount of influence exerted by another individual. Influence is also a contributing factor in shaping the behavior or personality of people. I concur with A. Ange on the presence of leadership crisis but I also foresee the resolutions taken and are still being taken to resolve the problem. Many organizations are spending money in sending their employees to be groomed and trained for future growth of the company whereby they are exposed to different methods of management and how to be great leaders. Leaders are born to leaders but in some circumstances, situations and environments also play a huge role in creating a leader. Leaders with innate capabilities also need to be exposed to certain conditions in order to build their characters and polish their leadership capabilities. Some can be shaped through exposure to various lifelong knowledge and skills training available today. With all kinds of methods and approaches easily accessible, average leaders can become even greater leaders with enough exposure and experience. Leaders come and go and new ones are always on the threshold to take over the empty space. The qualities of the leaders and their leadership styles vary but they are vital in the development and motivation processes of the organizations. There is a crisis in good leadership but it is not at a critical point. Big organizations would have everything in place for the future growth of the company and would have in line the replacements for all aspects of the management. Even small to medium sized organizations have planned their management line-ups for the future. The ongoing programs and trainings that are conducted by organizations to produce capable leaders and gr

Adult Learning Techniques and Methods Application for successful

Many organizations in today’s competitive business world focus on training to enhance capacity development to their staff in order to compete effectively. The reason that underlies this competition is the emergence of knowledge based economy that put organizations to task and compete on the basis of knowledge.Therefore, many companies focus on building and equipping their staff with necessary skills and knowledge. It is therefore, a daunting task to design, develop and plan for the workforce training intervention; since are different from children in regard to learning.As a result of complexity in instructional approach for adult learning, many training intervention for the Human Resource Development programs fail to give the desired results or changes intended by training intervention.The area of approach to design of training intervention is an outstanding concern because it determines the outcome of those training programs. In this regard, this paper shall look at best trai ning or learning design to be embraced while developing a training intervention for developing workforce. This is because adult learners process information differently than one another and justify special approach.IntroductionOrganizational learning usually aims at capacity development of the organization, individual and occupational. Campbell (2007), defines organizational capacity as the organizational potential to perform that is enabled by its ability to define and realize its goals and objectives in a more sustainable and relevant manner.Therefore, organization capacity development shall refer to the processes by which an organization effectively formulate and achieve organizational goals. In order to achieve the desired Organizational capacity through learning, training should focus to realize the needs and goals of the organization.Capacities emphasized in organizational learning are: adaptive capacity that enables organization to learn and change in response to operational environment dynamism; and operational that aims at equipping the organization workforce up-dated skills and knowledge to carryout daily activities of the organization (Baud, Gerick 1999, 131).Powers (2002), states that in order for the organizational learning to bear fruit and be meaningful, process of learning should be emphasized to ensure quality instruction to the adults in learning session.A quote by Campbell, (2007), says â€Å"many organizational facilitators have failed to give quality instruction to learners during organization’s workshops, seminars and trainings because their content and methodological approach do not match the needs of the learners† Therefore, in order to have a meaningful and useful training.A variety of learning techniques and methods are necessary when training and developing adult learners because adult learners process information differently than one another. In this line of thought, the paper shall look at these techniques that should be employed to carter for adult differences in processing the information.Learning objectivesLearning objectives are important because they guide the instructor on the designing, planning and developing training that is relevant to the needs of the trainees in relation to agenda of meeting the organizational goal. Taylor (2003); notes that good learning objectives should be derived from need assessment conducted.Importantly, learning objectives should be; realistic, measurable, time conscious, and take into account the needs of the learner. Using two sets of objectives: general objective depicts changes or competencies expected after training; while the specific objective describes what the trainees should be able to do after undergoing the training, the instructor should formulate content, method and aids to be used (Kraiger, Salas, 1997, p. 272).Organizational learningIn order to have a successful and relevant Organizational training should involve identification of the target gr oup; learning mode choice; and selection and sequencing of the contents.Identification of the training target group: training intervention will be rendered fruitless if the trainees do not put into practice the training when they go back to their functions resulting from wrong choice of the participants (Baud, Geric, 1999, p. 95).Therefore correct participant’s choice is necessary. For example, in some cases the entire department may be selected for training where there are changes in the processes regarding to that department. While in other cases, key person is involved for training for specific task or skills like C.E.O. or managerTraining mode choice: it’s important to consider sheer volume and learning task complexity that can be used to direct the choice for distance or onsite classroom. While mass vs. distributed training, since research indicates that training instruction under distributed practice is retained more and longer.Selection and sequencing of the con tent: the content should be strictly based on the learning objectives in consideration with job and task analysis. The difficult task should be allocated appropriate and sufficient time. Additionally, learning topic should not come in ad-hoc manner since it may hamper learning.Rest duration is important and dependant on the memory warm-up and psychological fatigue. In relation to rest duration, Armmons (1947), research work indicated that performance efficient may rise between 18%-43% with rest duration of 5-20 minutes after an intensive learning by trainers (Baud, Gerick 1999, p. 294).Training Activities, techniques and methodsThis is central to learning by using of instruction strategy and approach. According to Kraiger and Salas (1997), instructional strategies are set of tools, contents and methodologies which are combined to create an instructional approach.In this connection four best principles should be used to create an efficient instructional strategy: relevancy of concept s to be learned, demonstration of the altitudes, knowledge and skills to be learnt by learners; and feedback provision to instructors after practice and during practicing the skills attained.The instructional strategy selection is dependant on the instructor, but should choose a variety of strategies to accommodate content delivery, objectives, materials or aids used, and aim to maintain interest of learning.   Adults learns best by doing and working in a non-threatening, participators, respectful and informal environment.Principles of adult learning useful for instruction designIn regard to performance improvement through learning, there are six key principles to enhance successful adult learning. These principles integrate the perspectives, models and theories provided by great scholars like Kolb, Knowles, Mezirow and Freire on their take on effective learning.Participation: In learning, trainees learn more and remember the content of the subject matter when they are actively en gaged in learning process. While skills best develop by doing and engaging in practical exercise, group work, simulation, games and discussion.Furthermore participation can be enhanced by facilitating a collaborative environment, role sharing and use of friendly dialogue to encourage sharing of experiences and knowledge. Thus by enhancing positive altitudes and learning atmosphere it corresponds to participation boosting to trainers.Understanding: Greater understanding can be enhanced when training starts at the level of the trainee as provided by training needs assessment.Practices and learning activities that can increase understanding to trainers are appropriate use of vocabulary according to trainers level, use of trainers language, avoidance of unnecessary technical jargon (Celinski, 1983), reformulation of ideas in trainers own words, use of real life examples provided by the trainer and use of learners experience as examples. The checking mechanism for the learners understand ing is through use of short questions.Feedback: Feedbacks are important part of construct process for learning. Through feedback the trainees get a sense of their progression towards learning objectives and if not, they strategize how to get there. Feedback should be provided shortly after instruction to enable learners relate to processes they have used.Additionally, learners should be given good reacceptance on their feedback to encourage them to try again. For instance, instructor should use encouraging term like good trail or good attempt even if the trainee has given a wrong feedback.Interest: In training intervention, learner’s interest comes as a result of learner’s intrinsic motivation. Whereby, the trainee should be made to feel the need to learn and own the goal of training is likely to increase urge to participate and be more engaged.To achieve trainees interest in training intervention, learning objectives must be relevant to their needs, Kolb (1979) emphas ize that adult learners interest is embedded in their personal histories, vision of who they are and what the want to do. Therefore, to capture the interest of trainees, learning methods should integrate work and studies, theory and practice will provide a more productive learning undertaking by the workforce.In addition to this, adult will only remember or have interest to learn what they consider useful to them and has pleasure to learn it. Therefore, learning should be cantered on the content relevancy in accordance to what adult’s value with more pragmatic examples like marriage, divorce, parenting, taking a new job, losing a job (Powers, 2002, p. 241).Emphasis: Emphasis is attained by focusing the attention of learners on the most important points that will be useful to make a trainee remember easily. This emphasis should be used to crucial points. Through instructors, repetition, reformulation, examples, summarizing or asking question gives emphasis to main ideas desire d to be attained by use of didactic aids and exercises.This by giving more attention and time to certain concepts, it allows learners to practice and retain skills and knowledge. (Baldwin, Ford 1998: 217), state that when a trainee is not able to recall content after a training session, the content is likely to have extend the long term memory, as a result it will not be retained.Results: Organizational training intervention aimed at capacity development should make learners feel successful after the training session and enable the employee to plan how to effect and use the skills and knowledge attained in organizational working environment.As a result this learner’s confidences in his or her ability to cope with work task to a great extend supports performance improving to an individual and organization collectively.The instructor can scaffold the trainees by keeping them informed on their progress, congratulating for good work and more accelerated by issuance of a participa tory certificate to the trainees, the certificate will put employee in task of reflecting the theoretical value of certificate to practical world (Baud, Geric, 1999, p.103).Teaching methods and techniquesThe instructional methods designated to have a positive impact to an adult learner, should aim at fulfilling the special characteristics of the adult learner.These characteristics are geared towards achievement of LEARN (Leadership, Experience, Appeal, Respect and Novel Styles) that makes them realize their need to gain something; to be something; to do something; and to save something in an event of learning (Goldstein, 2003, p. 219). The following general techniques are proposed.Icebreaker: good and integrated introduction to achieve a friendly and a relaxed atmosphere in a learning session. Done through adjourning the learning for five minutes and for each member to introduce himself to the person on his right by giving name, where he comes from, hobbies, and interests. Researche rs have found out that icebreaker breaks down the formality of meetings that tends to force shy members into deeper silence.Group Discussion: it is evident that people enjoy learning, themselves more when are engaged in discussion groups and can remember well the information discussed in the group.The advantage to the instructor is that he or she has a quicker way to obtain the views of all members. The learners shall have the opportunity to participate in the discussion. Furthermore, learners consider that they are contributing to the goal of progress and that their contribution is being recognized.Brainstorming: This is a technique used by the instructor to literally storm a problem to achieve the maximum number of ideas in the shortest possible. The purpose of brainstorming is to stimulate the creative ability of the trainees and improves creative powers.Case Study: employing case studies that describes a situation that contains a number of problems and it requires a solution. Th is gives the trainees a basis and opportunity for studying a situation, analyzing its important aspects, and reaching various conclusions.Team presentations: the importance of team presentation is to create a sense of team building and provides an ideal learning and review experience. As a result, the learners shall be able to understand the issue and convey it in a creative and entertainingLearning games: this is an activity that is meant to complement the learning experience. Inclusion of a game into a training module allows the trainer to drive home a point in another fashion, thereby increasing the probability of retention and application. Ideally, content retention of new material or a new skill will be more likely if the trainee hears it more than once or practices new behavior several times (Goldstein, 2003, p. 229).ConclusionTo sum up the paper, the paper has discussed and examined the best practices that can facilitate effective adult learning in the context of organization al learning.However, after learning the transfer process may be negative or positive but should be reinforced through follow up- to training activities to scaffold and help the trainees to use the acquired knowledge in work environment. In order to determine effectiveness of the learning evaluation is vital tool of design to be employed.Main areas that should be evaluated are identification of training needs, learning process, learning outcomes, behavioral change, impact on the organizational performance and organizational outcomes.ReferenceGoldstein, I. L. (2003) Training in Organization; needs, assessment, development and evaluation: pacific groove, BrooksBaud, D. & Gerick, J (1999), Understanding Learning at Work: London: Routledge.Celinski, D. (1983), ‘Trainers Manual: Formulating Training Policy Statements’, Training and Development, June.Campbell, J. P. (2007), ‘Personnel Training and Development’: Annual Review of Psychology, vol. 12, p.565.Kraiger, K., Salas, E. (1997), Improving Training Effectiveness in Work Organization: Mahwah, Erlbaum.Powers, R. (2002). Instructor excellence: San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Language, Nonverbal Codes, and Cultural Space

I am Sam Is an emotionally charged movie about a mentally disabled father that does his best to raise his daughter that was abandoned by her mother at birth. There is a large cast of characters that contribute to the movie and all of them communicate in different ways. Cultural differences and communication styles will be explored further. The focus of the movie is the bond between Sam and his daughter Lucy. Almost from the beginning there Is a common bond between the two eased on the mental capacity they both share.Once Lucy Is old enough to formulate her own thoughts the small communication gap they once had was dissolved. They both had similar thoughts and exhibited a mostly high context communication style throughout the movie. Having so much in common and being around each other contributed to the many verbal and nonverbal cues they used to communicate. Many times Sam would revert back to Battles trivia to answer question asked of him. Since he didn't have the mental capacity to generate meaningful â€Å"adult† talk, this is how he hose to communicate with Intellectually superior people.Sam had a few friends that were all disabled in their own ways and it was obvious to see that they all had their own ways to communicate when speaking about how to raise Lucy but they all knew what each other was saying even if it wasn't obvious. There were many other types of communication I observed in the movie. As cold and calculated as Cam's lawyer Rata was, Sam and her actually developed a strong bond as they both helped each other out with their Issues. Randy, who became Lully's foster parent also

Securities Of Stocks And Bonds Essay Example Pdf - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 5 Words: 1550 Downloads: 9 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Finance Essay Type Argumentative essay Did you like this example? In the finance market, organization or people that are lack of money can be borrow money from those having money to lend out in the financial market. They are many different of finance market due to different type of people needed in different situation. The financial market are to deal with different types of financial instruments such as stocks or shares, bonds, notes, mortgages and other claim on real assets. Finance market operate as the spot market and future market. Spot market happens when the deals being brought or sold for on the spot delivery. Future market happens when the deals being brought or sold for on the future delivery at future date that is determined. Firstly, money markets happens when the financial market dealing with short- term, highly liquid debt securities in which funds are borrowed or loaned for short period of time that are not less than one year. The capital market is the financial market dealing with stocks or shares, intermediate o r long-term debts in which funds are borrowed or loaned for long period of times especially more than one year. Mortgage market is the financial market dealing with loans on residential, commercial, industrial real estate and farmland. The consumer credit markets is the financial market dealing with loans on autos and appliances or can be used in education ,vacation and so on. The primary market is the financial market in which corporations raise capital by issuing new securities or new shares. The secondly market is the financial market in which the existing and already outstanding securities or other financial assets are traded among investors after they have been issued by the corporations. The initial public offering market (IPO) is the finance market which the firm or corporations go publicby offering securities or shares to the public for the first time. Lastly, private market is the financial market in which the transactions are worked out privately and directly between two p arties without going to public where the transactions may be structured in any manner that appeals to the two parties. Example of private market is bank loan and placement of debts with insurance companies. There are three ways for transferring capital or fund from savers to borrowers in the financial market. Firstly, a direct transfer from savers to borrower. It takes place when a business corporation sells its stocks or bonds directly to savers. It is without going any type of financial institution. The business corporation acts as a borrower whereas saver acts as a money leader. Thus, the business corporation delivers its securities to savers then savers will give back the money to the business corporation after a moment. By this, the fund or capital is directly transferred from savers to business corporation. The direct transfer from savers to businesses corporation are possible and do occur on occasion. But, it is generally more efficient for a business to enlist the services o f an investment banking house such as Merrill Lynch. This type of organization help the corporations design securities with features that are currently attractive to investors. Then, it will buy these securities from the corporations and resell them to savers. This process is really one primary market transaction although the securities are sold twice. By this, the investment banker acts as a facilitator to help transfer capital form savers to businesses. Savers Borrower Dollars Secondly, an indirect transfer from savers to borrowers through investment banking house. Investment banking house is an organization that underwrites and distributes new investment securities and helps businesses to obtain finance. This method takes place when an investment banking underwrites the issuance of corporations securities. At this times, the investment banking house serve as a middleman . Therefore, it can be facilitate the issuance of corporations securities by purchasing the secu rities of corporation. Then, it is resell to the same securities of the corporation to savers so that the money paid back by the savers for purchase the securities of corporation are passed by the investment bank. Next, it is received by the corporation which acts as a borrower. Thus, the corporation s securities and the savers money merely conducted through the investment banking house. By this, the capital or fund is indirectly transferred through investment banking house from savers to corporation which acts as a borrower. Securities Securities Investment Banking House Savers Business Dollars Dollars Lastly, an indirect transfer from savers to borrowers through a financial intermediary. A financial intermediary is specialized financial firms that used to facilitate the transfer of funds from savers to demanders of capital. This method is takes place when a financial intermediary like a bank or a mutual fund obtains fund from savers. It is to issue its o wn securities or certificate of deposit to savers. Therefore, the financial intermediary will uses the fund that is collected from savers to purchase and to hold the securities of other corporations as investments. In this condition, the capital or fund is transferred from savers to financial intermediary when savers pay money to financial intermediary in exchange for receiving certificate of deposit or securities issued by the financial intermediary. Next, it is return back the financial intermediary will further transfer this fund to other corporation by paying money out of the fund to purchase securities of other corporation. But, most of the savers prefer to hold certificate of deposit and the securities of financial intermediary. It is because the savers think that they are safer and more liquid than mortgages and loans. It definitely cause financial intermediaries greatly increases the efficiency of money and capital markets. The financial intermediaries do more simple than tr ansfer money and securities between firms and savers. It help to create new financial products. The financial intermediaries are generally large due to gain economies of scale in analyzing the creditworthiness of potential borrowers, in processing and collecting loans, pooling risks and helping individual savers diversify by that is not putting all their financial eggs in one basket. Moreover, a system of specialized intermediaries can put money into banks and get both interest income. This system is a convenient way of making payments for checking or can put money into life insurance company. Then, it can get both interest income and protection for the customers benefit. Intermediarys securities Savers Businesss securities Financial Intermediary Business Dollars Dollars An investing banking house is an organization that underwrites and distributes the new issue of business corporations securities to assist corporation. It is help to obtain fund for financ ing. Examples of investment banking house are Merrill Lynch and Morgan Stanley Dean Witter. They are mainly in foreign country. In Malaysia, there are consist of CIMB Bank, Maybank , Affin and so on. There are various type of financial intermediaries for the fund transfer form savers to borrower. Firstly, commercial banks are traditional departmental store of financewhich acts as a wide variety of savers and borrowers. In past times, commercial banks were the major institutions that handled checking accounts and through which Fedcral Reserve System expanded the money supply. Now, commercial banks are providing an ever-widening range of services. There are include stock brokerage services and insurance. Commercial bank are lend out money to borrowers whereas investment banks assists business corporation to raise capital or fund from savers. Secondly, savings and loan associations are tranditionally served individual savers and residential and commercial mortgage borrowers . Iit is co llect funds from many small savers and then lend out this money to house buyers and other types of borrowers The most significant economic function of savings and loan association is used to create liquidity in capital market. Then, mutual savings loan are similar to savings and loan associations. It is to accept savings from individuals and then lend out money mainly on a long-term basis to house buyers and consumers. The credit unions are cooperative associations whose members are supposed to have a common bond . So, the unions collect savings from members and then loan to other members who need funds to finance their auto purchases, house improvement and house mortgage. It is often the cheapest source of funds available to individual borrowers. Pension funds are retirement plans that are funded by government agencies or corporations for their worker and administered. It is done by the trust departments of commercial banks or by life insurance companies. Pension funds invest prima rily in bonds, stocks, mortgages and real estate. Next, life insurance companies done by agent to collect savings in the form of annual premiums. These, the funds is invested in stocks, bonds, real estate and mortgages. Finally, it make a payments to the beneficiaries of the insured parties. Recently, life insurance companies also had to offer a many variety of tax-deferred savings plans designed to provide benefits to the participants when they retire. Lastly, mutual funds is formed when they collect funds from savers to used buy stocks, long term bonds and short-term debt instruments issued by businesses or government units. They pool funds from all savers so that can reduce risks by the investment diversification. Economics of scale achieved in analyzing securities, managing portfolios, buying and selling securities. Different mutual fund are to meet the objectives of different types of savers for different purposes. Bond funds for who desire safety, stock fund for used as intere st bearing checking accounts like money market funds. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Securities Of Stocks And Bonds Essay Example Pdf" essay for you Create order